INTRO VOLCANO of Indonesia
Indonesia is the land of volcanoes.This country is the world's largest volcanic area, of which hundreds volcanoes are still active. Every years, there are always some eruptions with different type of eruption, from strambolic to Plinian type of eruption.Most eruption is mostly Central Eruption.History of eruption of Indonesian volcano also recorded Linier Eruption in East Java, the home of Java's Volcanoes.
Most volcanoes is Strato with medium power of eruption. Past largest eruption recorded by Tambora, then Krakatau,also Merapi which it's volcanic material burried some temples of Java and forced the king to migrated.Type eruption of Indonesian volcano is not static,may change any time from Volcano Type to Strambolic and from Merapi Type to Plinian Type and so on.
Most very active volcanoes are monitored, and Indonesian volcano early warning system had been already established to warns citizen and visitors.The early warning system consisted on 4 level. On Level 1 is safe to climb up summit, while on Level 2, climbing up summit normally should be done under consultation, and on level 3, climbing up summit is normally prohibited by local authority for safety reason.
Indonesian volcanoes have two kinds of Volcanic Hazard;1) Primary Hazard, and 2) Secondary Hazard. Primary Hazard directly related to magmatic activity of the volcano such us eruption.While Secondary Hazard is not directly related to magmatic activity of the volcanoes such us Banjir Lahar (Lahar Flood),and avalanche which are normally caused by high intensity of rain on summit zone.Avoid hiking along the valley of the volcano is the best way to get safe during rainy days.
Below is the list of Indonesian volcano as well as some more detail information regarding phenomenon of volcano of Indonesia,and related volcano hazard plus Indonesian volcano early warning system:
BUILD
QUALITY TEACHERS TOWARDS THE DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION QUALITY
Introduction:
The mission of the New Teacher
The
development community needs for qualified human resources are slowly but surely
increasing from year to year. This is in line with the development of the world
demands of work not only requires human resources oriented to the needs of
industry. HR is needed now is human resources that have superior competence,
especially in terms of thinking ability. Thus HR needs right now is human
resources oriented to the mind works.
In line
with these needs pergerseran, restructuring of education should be conducted.Education
is not directed only in the printing industry labor for labor but also optimize
the ability to think in carrying out his job. This means that education should
be directed at efforts to create a situation so that students can learn and
have the ability to think high phases. In order to achieve the above functions,
the current educational efforts should emphasize the establishment of
competence to students who at once means that must also be accompanied by
radical changes in teaching culture at this time.
The above
conditions indicate that the teachers in carrying out the mission of creating a
graduate education changed only for the industrial world into graduates who are
ready to face a job that promotes higher-order thinking skills. This means that
teachers are required to be able to prepare all students to have the thinking
skills that include the ability to find problems, discover, integrate, and
synthesize information, create new solutions, and develop skills of students in
independent study and work in groups. Thus, teachers must actually be able to
find ways to encourage and develop the fulfillment of all the needs of students
based on their potential. Without this effort will be difficult to create
graduates who are armed with high-level thinking skills.
To be
able to run his new mission, the teacher must truly understand the cognition
and a variety of different ways of learning. Teachers must also understand the
development of students and pedagogical concepts as they master the learning
material and the use of alternative assessments to measure student learning
outcomes. Thus the teacher should be able to place the various substances
different experiences of learning, language and cultural differences, learning
styles, talents, and intelligence as a basis for implementing various teaching
strategies chosen.
Based on
the above conditions, the learning must be implemented on the basis of what
students know and can do as well as how students think and learn and to align
learning with the required performance in line with the needs of individual
students. Given this reality, it is clear teachers should really have superior
characteristics so that he will be able to implement its new mission in the
educational process. The creation of this pre-eminent teacher characteristics
must be done either at the time of teachers and teacher training to take the
education process at the time he was carrying out his job as educators.
Build
Quality Teacher Education Program
The need
for qualified teachers of the higher current must be positively addressed by
the management of teacher education. This positive response should be indicated
by constantly improving the quality of educational programs it offers.
Improvement of education quality in higher education will clearly bring a
positive impact on the creation of qualified teachers later in life.
To be
able to create a quality teacher education, based on several studies of
Darling-Hammond. and Bransford (Ed.) (2005: 394) states that at least there are
three important elements in the design of teacher education programs should be
improved (made different from current conditions). These three elements are as
follows.
The
content of teacher education, with regard to the material that must be given to
the students, how to give it, how to combine various materials so that
meaningful, as well as how the expansion so that students have a cognitive map
that will help them see the relationship between teacher knowledge domains to
its use in a practical way in field to encourage students to learn.
Learning
process, with regard to the preparation of curricula in line with the readiness
of students and fundamental to the practical learning materials and processes
that can lead to student understanding through active creativity in the
classroom.
Learning
context, with regard to the creation of contextual learning process in order to
develop practical skills of students. Learning context should be applied in
both domains as well as teaching materials through professional learning
communities (schools).
Sekait
with the opinion above, Lang and Evans (2006: 3) more clearly states that the
creation of quality educational programs can be based on the essentials of
teacher education programs as follows.
Keberartian
theory with practical experience.
Cooperation
between universities and other education communities.
Theory
and practical in generic skills and reflection and discussion about the
effectiveness of these skills.
Giving
emphasis on the process students learn how to enhance creativity and critical
thinking skills.
Ability
to organize learning.
Application
of constructivist approach to learning.
The
application of alternative assessment and the theory of motivation.
Building
a research-based professionalism.
Under
both views, the quality education programs in teacher education programs
dasarnnya are constantly considering what questions to learn what teachers and
teachers can do. What questions should be studied teacher education programs
will encourage teachers always teach the contextual material to the students.
Contextual material is of course not only presented but presented in a
practical theory that the prospective teachers are able to get two at once
experience the concepts and practical.In other words, it can be said teacher
education programs should be able to educate prospective teachers in learning
the basic assumptions about the practical concept in practice.
The
second question about what teachers can do to encourage the implementation of
teacher education programs lead to the excavation of the potential and needs of
the students adapted to real conditions the performance of teachers in the
field. Thus, teacher education programs will continue to focus on the creation
of hard skills and soft skills that teachers should possess. This means that
teacher education programs should be able to provide professional skills to
graduates while creating graduates who have higher thinking skills that will be
very useful to develop professionalism when they have to be a teacher someday.
Therefore, the implementation of the education process in teacher education
programs should be directed at efforts to introduce and play the students as a
teacher while he took his studies.
Quality
teacher education programs is not the teacher education program that provides
knowledge of various models and learning strategies to students but are able to
apply various models and strategies to students so that students acquire
theoretical concepts and application images at once. Through actual experience,
the complaints of teachers' ignorance of the various models and learning
strategies as well as the inability of teachers to implement various models and
strategies will be able ditepiskan. In addition, by applying various models and
strategies directly to students, students will increase creativity and
prospective teachers will understand that the teacher is basically an attempt
to always be a professional learner.
Professional
development of teacher education which can also be formed through improved
research-based learning process. This means that from the beginning the
students should have been invited to conduct a simple research on each
course.Through this kind of learning style, prospective teachers are expected
to be able to find an actual teacher esesi simultaneously build their
competence to carry out skilled future research when they become teachers. In
addition, research-based learning can also be interpreted to mean that the
learning process is conducted in universities is always based on the latest
research results in line with the scientific vision and market signals so that
graduates will have a number of skills that is really needed in the field.
In the
end, the creation of a quality educational program will rely heavily on the
quality awareness of the managers. Sekait with this, the managers of
institutions of higher education teacher training is based on the educational
process should run clear quality assurance. The teacher education program
managers are required to afford providing excellent service to students so that
the entire program is performing students to be able to deliver quality human
resources. In addition, the impact of this will bother the quality of leads
also to the public trust in the teacher education institutions so that
keberlangsung teacher education programs will be assured in the future.
Fannie Bullock Workman made ascents into the Himalayas at the turn of the 20th century.
- Though it is unknown whether his intention was to reach a summit, "Ötzi" ascended at least 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) in the Alps about 5,300 years ago. His remains were found at that altitude, preserved in a glacier.
- The first recorded mountain ascent in the Common Era is Roman Emperor Hadrian's ascent of Etna (3,350 m) to see the sun rise in 121.
- Peter III of Aragon climbed Canigou in the Pyrenees in the last quarter of the 13th century.
- The first ascent of the Popocatépetl (5,426 m in Mexico) was reported in 1289 by members of a local tribe (Tecanuapas)[citation needed]
- Jean Buridan climbed Mont Ventoux around 1316.
- The Italian poet Petrarch wrote that on April 26, 1336 he, together with his brother and two servants, climbed to the top of Mont Ventoux (1,909 m). His account of the trip was composed later as a letter to his friend Dionigi di Borgo San Sepolcro.
- The Rochemelon (3,538 m) in the Italian Alps was climbed in 1358.
- In the late 15th and early 16th centuries, ascents were made of numerous high peaks in the Andes, for religious purposes by the citizens of the Inca Empire and their subjects. They constructed platforms, houses and altars on many summits and carried out sacrifices, including human sacrifices. The highest peak they are known for certain to have climbed is Llullaillaco (6,739 m). They may also have ascended the highest peak in the Andes, Aconcagua (6,962 m) as a sacrifice victim has been found at over 5,000 m on this peak.
- In 1492 the ascent of Mont Aiguille was made by order of Charles VIII of France. The Humanists of the 16th century adopted a new attitude towards mountains, but the disturbed state of Europe nipped in the bud the nascent mountaineering of the Zurich school.
- Leonardo da Vinci climbed to a snow-field in the neighborhood of Monte Rosa and made scientific observations.
- in 1573, Francesco De Marchi reached the summit of Gran Sasso (2912m) in central Italy.
- In 1642 Darby Field made the first recorded ascent of Mount Washington, then known as Agiocochook, in New Hampshire.
- Konrad Gesner and Josias Simler of Zurich visited and described mountains, and made regular ascents. The use of ice axe and rope were locally invented at this time. No mountain expeditions of note are recorded in the 17th century.
- Richard Pococke and William Windham's historic visit to Chamonix was made in 1741, and set the trend for visiting glaciers.
- The first attempt to ascend Mont Blanc was made in 1775 by a party of natives. In 1786 Dr Michel Paccard and Jacques Balmat gained the summit for the first time. Horace-Bénédict de Saussure, the initiator of the first ascent followed next year.
- The Norwegian mountain climber, Jens Esmark was the first person to ascend Snøhetta in 1798, part of the Dovrefjell range in Southern Norway. The same year he led the first expedition to Bitihorn, a small mountain in the southernmost outskirts of Jotunheimen, Norway. In 1810 he was the first person to ascend Mount Gaustatoppen in Telemark, Norway.
- The Grossglockner was climbed in 1800, the Ortler in 1804, the Jungfrau in 1811, the Finsteraarhorn in 1812, and the Breithorn in 1813. Thereafter, tourists showed a tendency to climb, and the body of Alpine guides began to come into existence as a consequence.
- The British scientist, Sir John Herschel, makes an ascent in 1824 where on July 23 he carries out a barometric determination of the height of Mount Etna.
- Aconcagua (22,831 feet), the highest peak of the Andes was first climbed in 1897 and the Grand Teton (13,747 feet)in North America's Rocky Mountains was ascended in 1898.
- The Italian Duke of the Abruzzi in 1897 made the first ascent on Mount St.Elias (18,009 feet) which stands at the boundary of Alaska and Canada and in 1906 successfully climbed Margherita in the Ruwenzori group (16,795 feet) in East Africa. In 1913, an American,Hudson Stuck ascended Mount Mckinley (20,320 feet) in Alaska, the highest peak in North America.
- Citlaltépetl (5720 m in Mexico) was first climbed in 1848 by F. Maynard & G. Reynolds.
- Systematic mountaineering, as a sport, is usually dated from Sir Alfred Wills's ascent of the Wetterhorn in 1854. The first ascent of Monte Rosa was made in 1855.
- The Alpine Club was founded in London in 1857, and was soon imitated in most European countries. Edward Whymper's ascent of the Matterhorn in 1865 marked the close of the main period of Alpine conquest, the Golden age of alpinism, during which the craft of climbing was invented and "perfected", the body of professional guides formed and their traditions fixed.
- Passing to other ranges, the exploration of the Pyrenees was concurrent with that of the Alps. The Caucasus followed, mainly owing to the initiative of D. W. Freshfield; it was first visited by exploring climbers in 1868, and most of its great peaks were climbed by 1888.
- The Edelweiss Club Salzburg was founded in Salzburg in 1881, and had 3 members make the first ascent on two Eight-thousanders, Broad Peak (1957) and Dhaulagiri (1960).
- Trained climbers turned their attention to the mountains of North America in 1888, when the Rev. W. S. Green made an expedition to the Selkirk Mountains. From that time exploration has gone on apace, and many English and American climbing parties have surveyed most of the highest peaks; Pikes Peak (14,110 ft) having been climbed by Mr. E. James and party in 1820, and Mt. Saint Elias (18,008 ft) by the Duke of the Abruzzi and party in 1897. The exploration of the highest Andes was begun in 1879-1880, when Whymper climbed Chimborazo and explored the mountains of Ecuador. The Cordillera between Chile and Argentina was visited by Dr. Gussfeldt in 1883, who ascended Maipo (17,270 ft) and attempted Aconcagua (22,841 ft). That peak was first climbed by the Fitzgerald expedition in 1897.
- The Andes of Bolivia were first explored by Sir William Martin Conway in 1898. Chilean and Argentine expeditions revealed the structure of the southern Cordillera in the years 1885-1898. Conway visited the mountains of Tierra del Fuego.
- New Zealand's Southern Alps were first visited in 1882 by the Rev. W. S. Green, and shortly afterwards a New Zealand Alpine Club was founded, and by their activities the exploration of the range was pushed forward. In 1895, Major Edward Arthur Fitzgerald, made an important journey in this range. Tom Fyfe and party climbed Aoraki/Mount Cook on Christmas Day 1894, denying Fitzgerald the first ascent. Fitzgerald was en route from Britain with Swiss guide Matthias Zurbriggen to claim the peak. So piqued at being beaten to the top of Mount Cook, he refused to climb it and concentrated on other peaks in the area. Later in the trip Zubriggen soloed Mount Cook up a ridge that now bears his name.
- The first mountains of the arctic region explored were those of Spitsbergen by Sir W. M. Conway's expeditions in 1896 and 1897.
- Of the high African peaks, Kilimanjaro was climbed in 1889 by Dr. Hans Meyer, Mt. Kenya in 1899 by Halford John Mackinder, and a peak of Ruwenzori by H. J. Moore in 1900.
- The Asiatic mountains were initially surveyed on orders of the British Empire. In 1892 Sir William Martin Conway explored the Karakoram Himalaya, and climbed a peak of 23,000 ft (7,000 m) In 1895 Albert F. Mummery died while attempting Nanga Parbat, while in 1899 D. W. Freshfield took an expedition to the snowy regions of Sikkim. In 1899, 1903, 1906 and 1908 Mrs Fannie Bullock Workman made ascents in the Himalayas, including one of the Nun Kun peaks (23,300 ft). A number of Gurkha sepoys were trained as expert mountaineers by Major the Hon. C. G. Bruce, and a good deal of exploration was accomplished by them.
- The Sierra Club was founded by John Muir in San Francisco, California in 1892.
- The Rucksack Club was founded in Manchester, England in 1902.
- The American Alpine Club was founded in 1902.
- In 1902, the Eckenstein-Crowley Expedition, led by mountaineer Oscar Eckenstein and author and occultist Aleister Crowley, was the first to attempt to scale Chogo Ri (now known as K2 in the west). They reached 22,000 feet (6,700 m) before turning back due to weather and other mishaps.
- In 1905, Aleister Crowley led the first expedition to Kangchenjunga, the third highest mountain in the world. Four members of that party were killed in an avalanche. Some claims say they reached around 21,300 feet (6,500 m) before turning back, however Crowley's autobiography claims they reached about 25,000 feet (7,600 m).
- A few Olympics in the 1920s included prizes for alpinism, but these were discontinued after World War II.
- The British made several attempts in the 1920s to climb Mount Everest. The first in 1921 was more of an exploratory expedition but the 1922 expedition reached 8,320 metres (27,300 ft) before being aborted on the third summit attempt after seven porters were killed in an avalanche. The 1924 expedition saw another height record achieved but still failed to reach the summit when George Mallory and Andrew Irvine disappeared on the final attempt.
- 1938 saw the first ascent of the North Face of the Eiger by Andreas Heckmair, Wiggerl Vorg, Fritz Kasparek and Heinrich Harrer. This route was feted as the "last great problem of the Alps" (one of several).
- The 1950s saw the first ascents of all the eight-thousanders but two, starting with Annapurna in 1950 by Maurice Herzog and Louis Lachenal. The world's highest mountain (above mean sea level), Mount Everest (8,848 m) was first climbed on May 29, 1953 by Sir Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay from the south side in Nepal. Just a few months later, Hermann Buhl made the first ascent of Nanga Parbat (8,125 m), a siege style expedition culminating in a remarkable solo push for the summit, it's the only eight-thousander to be summited solo on the first ascent. K2 (8,611 m), the second highest peak in the world was first scaled in 1954 by Lino Lacedelli and Achille Compagnoni. In 1964, the final eight-thousander to be climbed was Shishapangma (8,013 m), the lowest of all the 8,000 metre peaks.
